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<p align="center"><img src="/images/logo.png" alt=""></p> <h1 align="center">What the f*ck Python! 😱</h1> <p align="center">Exploring and understanding Python through surprising snippets.</p>

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Python, being a beautifully designed high-level and interpreter-based programming language, provides us with many features for the programmer's comfort. But sometimes, the outcomes of a Python snippet may not seem obvious at first sight.

Here's a fun project attempting to explain what exactly is happening under the hood for some counter-intuitive snippets and lesser-known features in Python.

While some of the examples you see below may not be WTFs in the truest sense, but they'll reveal some of the interesting parts of Python that you might be unaware of. I find it a nice way to learn the internals of a programming language, and I believe that you'll find it interesting too!

If you're an experienced Python programmer, you can take it as a challenge to get most of them right in the first attempt. You may have already experienced some of them before, and I might be able to revive sweet old memories of yours! :sweat_smile:

PS: If you're a returning reader, you can learn about the new modifications here (the examples marked with asterisk are the ones added in the latest major revision).

So, here we go...

Table of Contents

<!-- Generated using "markdown-toc -i README.md --maxdepth 3"--> <!-- toc --> <!-- tocstop -->

Structure of the Examples

All the examples are structured like below:

▶ Some fancy Title

# Set up the code.
# Preparation for the magic...

Output (Python version(s)):

>>> triggering_statement
Some unexpected output

(Optional): One line describing the unexpected output.

💡 Explanation:

# Set up code
# More examples for further clarification (if necessary)

Output (Python version(s)):

>>> trigger # some example that makes it easy to unveil the magic
# some justified output

Note: All the examples are tested on Python 3.5.2 interactive interpreter, and they should work for all the Python versions unless explicitly specified before the output.

Usage

A nice way to get the most out of these examples, in my opinion, is to read them chronologically, and for every example:

PS: You can also read WTFPython at the command line using the pypi package,

$ pip install wtfpython -U
$ wtfpython

👀 Examples

Section: Strain your brain!

▶ First things first! *

<!-- Example ID: d3d73936-3cf1-4632-b5ab-817981338863 --> <!-- read-only -->

For some reason, the Python 3.8's "Walrus" operator (:=) has become quite popular. Let's check it out,

1.

# Python version 3.8+

>>> a = "wtf_walrus"
>>> a
'wtf_walrus'

>>> a := "wtf_walrus"
File "<stdin>", line 1
    a := "wtf_walrus"
      ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

>>> (a := "wtf_walrus") # This works though
'wtf_walrus'
>>> a
'wtf_walrus'

2 .

# Python version 3.8+

>>> a = 6, 9
>>> a
(6, 9)

>>> (a := 6, 9)
(6, 9)
>>> a
6

>>> a, b = 6, 9 # Typical unpacking
>>> a, b
(6, 9)
>>> (a, b = 16, 19) # Oops
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    (a, b = 6, 9)
          ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

>>> (a, b := 16, 19) # This prints out a weird 3-tuple
(6, 16, 19)

>>> a # a is still unchanged?
6

>>> b
16

💡 Explanation

Quick walrus operator refresher

The Walrus operator (:=) was introduced in Python 3.8, it can be useful in situations where you'd want to assign values to variables within an expression.

def some_func():
        # Assume some expensive computation here
        # time.sleep(1000)
        return 5

# So instead of,
if some_func():
        print(some_func()) # Which is bad practice since computation is happening twice

# or
a = some_func()
if a:
    print(a)

# Now you can concisely write
if a := some_func():
        print(a)

Output (> 3.8):

5
5
5

This saved one line of code, and implicitly prevented invoking some_func twice.


▶ Strings can be tricky sometimes

<!-- Example ID: 30f1d3fc-e267-4b30-84ef-4d9e7091ac1a --->

1.

>>> a = "some_string"
>>> id(a)
140420665652016
>>> id("some" + "_" + "string") # Notice that both the ids are same.
140420665652016

2.

>>> a = "wtf"
>>> b = "wtf"
>>> a is b
True

>>> a = "wtf!"
>>> b = "wtf!"
>>> a is b
False

3.

>>> a, b = "wtf!", "wtf!"
>>> a is b # All versions except 3.7.x
True

>>> a = "wtf!"; b = "wtf!"
>>> a is b # This will print True or False depending on where you're invoking it (python shell / ipython / as a script)
False
# This time in file some_file.py
a = "wtf!"
b = "wtf!"
print(a is b)

# prints True when the module is invoked!

4.

Output (< Python3.7 )

>>> 'a' * 20 is 'aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa'
True
>>> 'a' * 21 is 'aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa'
False

Makes sense, right?

💡 Explanation:


▶ Be careful with chained operations

<!-- Example ID: 07974979-9c86-4720-80bd-467aa19470d9 --->
>>> (False == False) in [False] # makes sense
False
>>> False == (False in [False]) # makes sense
False
>>> False == False in [False] # now what?
True

>>> True is False == False
False
>>> False is False is False
True

>>> 1 > 0 < 1
True
>>> (1 > 0) < 1
False
>>> 1 > (0 < 1)
False

💡 Explanation:

As per https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#membership-test-operations

Formally, if a, b, c, ..., y, z are expressions and op1, op2, ..., opN are comparison operators, then a op1 b op2 c ... y opN z is equivalent to a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN z, except that each expression is evaluated at most once.

While such behavior might seem silly to you in the above examples, it's fantastic with stuff like a == b == c and 0 <= x <= 100.


▶ How not to use is operator

<!-- Example ID: 230fa2ac-ab36-4ad1-b675-5f5a1c1a6217 --->

The following is a very famous example present all over the internet.

1.

>>> a = 256
>>> b = 256
>>> a is b
True

>>> a = 257
>>> b = 257
>>> a is b
False

2.

>>> a = []
>>> b = []
>>> a is b
False

>>> a = tuple()
>>> b = tuple()
>>> a is b
True

3. Output

>>> a, b = 257, 257
>>> a is b
True

Output (Python 3.7.x specifically)

>>> a, b = 257, 257
>> a is b
False

💡 Explanation:

The difference between is and ==

256 is an existing object but 257 isn't

When you start up python the numbers from -5 to 256 will be allocated. These numbers are used a lot, so it makes sense just to have them ready.

Quoting from https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/long.html

The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for all integers between -5 and 256, when you create an int in that range you just get back a reference to the existing object. So it should be possible to change the value of 1. I suspect the behavior of Python, in this case, is undefined. :-)

>>> id(256)
10922528
>>> a = 256
>>> b = 256
>>> id(a)
10922528
>>> id(b)
10922528
>>> id(257)
140084850247312
>>> x = 257
>>> y = 257
>>> id(x)
140084850247440
>>> id(y)
140084850247344

Here the interpreter isn't smart enough while executing y = 257 to recognize that we've already created an integer of the value 257, and so it goes on to create another object in the memory.

Similar optimization applies to other immutable objects like empty tuples as well. Since lists are mutable, that's why [] is [] will return False and () is () will return True. This explains our second snippet. Let's move on to the third one,

Both a and b refer to the same object when initialized with same value in the same line.

Output

>>> a, b = 257, 257
>>> id(a)
140640774013296
>>> id(b)
140640774013296
>>> a = 257
>>> b = 257
>>> id(a)
140640774013392
>>> id(b)
140640774013488

▶ Hash brownies

<!-- Example ID: eb17db53-49fd-4b61-85d6-345c5ca213ff --->

1.

some_dict = {}
some_dict[5.5] = "JavaScript"
some_dict[5.0] = "Ruby"
some_dict[5] = "Python"

Output:

>>> some_dict[5.5]
"JavaScript"
>>> some_dict[5.0] # "Python" destroyed the existence of "Ruby"?
"Python"
>>> some_dict[5] 
"Python"

>>> complex_five = 5 + 0j
>>> type(complex_five)
complex
>>> some_dict[complex_five]
"Python"

So, why is Python all over the place?

💡 Explanation


▶ Deep down, we're all the same.

<!-- Example ID: 8f99a35f-1736-43e2-920d-3b78ec35da9b --->
class WTF:
  pass

Output:

>>> WTF() == WTF() # two different instances can't be equal
False
>>> WTF() is WTF() # identities are also different
False
>>> hash(WTF()) == hash(WTF()) # hashes _should_ be different as well
True
>>> id(WTF()) == id(WTF())
True

💡 Explanation:


▶ Disorder within order *

<!-- Example ID: 91bff1f8-541d-455a-9de4-6cd8ff00ea66 --->
from collections import OrderedDict

dictionary = dict()
dictionary[1] = 'a'; dictionary[2] = 'b';

ordered_dict = OrderedDict()
ordered_dict[1] = 'a'; ordered_dict[2] = 'b';

another_ordered_dict = OrderedDict()
another_ordered_dict[2] = 'b'; another_ordered_dict[1] = 'a';

class DictWithHash(dict):
    """
    A dict that also implements __hash__ magic.
    """
    __hash__ = lambda self: 0

class OrderedDictWithHash(OrderedDict):
    """
    An OrderedDict that also implements __hash__ magic.
    """
    __hash__ = lambda self: 0

Output

>>> dictionary == ordered_dict # If a == b
True
>>> dictionary == another_ordered_dict # and b == c
True
>>> ordered_dict == another_ordered_dict # then why isn't c == a ??
False

# We all know that a set consists of only unique elements,
# let's try making a set of these dictionaries and see what happens...

>>> len({dictionary, ordered_dict, another_ordered_dict})
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: unhashable type: 'dict'

# Makes sense since dict don't have __hash__ implemented, let's use
# our wrapper classes.
>>> dictionary = DictWithHash()
>>> dictionary[1] = 'a'; dictionary[2] = 'b';
>>> ordered_dict = OrderedDictWithHash()
>>> ordered_dict[1] = 'a'; ordered_dict[2] = 'b';
>>> another_ordered_dict = OrderedDictWithHash()
>>> another_ordered_dict[2] = 'b'; another_ordered_dict[1] = 'a';
>>> len({dictionary, ordered_dict, another_ordered_dict})
1
>>> len({ordered_dict, another_ordered_dict, dictionary}) # changing the order
2

What is going on here?

💡 Explanation:


▶ Keep trying... *

<!-- Example ID: b4349443-e89f-4d25-a109-82616be9d41a --->
def some_func():
    try:
        return 'from_try'
    finally:
        return 'from_finally'

def another_func(): 
    for _ in range(3):
        try:
            continue
        finally:
            print("Finally!")

def one_more_func(): # A gotcha!
    try:
        for i in range(3):
            try:
                1 / i
            except ZeroDivisionError:
                # Let's throw it here and handle it outside for loop
                raise ZeroDivisionError("A trivial divide by zero error")
            finally:
                print("Iteration", i)
                break
    except ZeroDivisionError as e:
        print("Zero division error occurred", e)

Output:

>>> some_func()
'from_finally'

>>> another_func()
Finally!
Finally!
Finally!

>>> 1 / 0
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

>>> one_more_func()
Iteration 0

💡 Explanation:


▶ For what?

<!-- Example ID: 64a9dccf-5083-4bc9-98aa-8aeecde4f210 --->
some_string = "wtf"
some_dict = {}
for i, some_dict[i] in enumerate(some_string):
    i = 10

Output:

>>> some_dict # An indexed dict appears.
{0: 'w', 1: 't', 2: 'f'}

💡 Explanation:


▶ Evaluation time discrepancy

<!-- Example ID: 6aa11a4b-4cf1-467a-b43a-810731517e98 --->

1.

array = [1, 8, 15]
# A typical generator expression
gen = (x for x in array if array.count(x) > 0)
array = [2, 8, 22]

Output:

>>> print(list(gen)) # Where did the other values go?
[8]

2.

array_1 = [1,2,3,4]
gen_1 = (x for x in array_1)
array_1 = [1,2,3,4,5]

array_2 = [1,2,3,4]
gen_2 = (x for x in array_2)
array_2[:] = [1,2,3,4,5]

Output:

>>> print(list(gen_1))
[1, 2, 3, 4]

>>> print(list(gen_2))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

3.

array_3 = [1, 2, 3]
array_4 = [10, 20, 30]
gen = (i + j for i in array_3 for j in array_4)

array_3 = [4, 5, 6]
array_4 = [400, 500, 600]

Output:

>>> print(list(gen))
[401, 501, 601, 402, 502, 602, 403, 503, 603]

💡 Explanation


is not ... is not is (not ...)

<!-- Example ID: b26fb1ed-0c7d-4b9c-8c6d-94a58a055c0d --->
>>> 'something' is not None
True
>>> 'something' is (not None)
False

💡 Explanation


▶ A tic-tac-toe where X wins in the first attempt!

<!-- Example ID: 69329249-bdcb-424f-bd09-cca2e6705a7a --->
# Let's initialize a row
row = [""] * 3 #row i['', '', '']
# Let's make a board
board = [row] * 3

Output:

>>> board
[['', '', ''], ['', '', ''], ['', '', '']]
>>> board[0]
['', '', '']
>>> board[0][0]
''
>>> board[0][0] = "X"
>>> board
[['X', '', ''], ['X', '', ''], ['X', '', '']]

We didn't assign three "X"s, did we?

💡 Explanation:

When we initialize row variable, this visualization explains what happens in the memory

image

And when the board is initialized by multiplying the row, this is what happens inside the memory (each of the elements board[0], board[1] and board[2] is a reference to the same list referred by row)

image

We can avoid this scenario here by not using row variable to generate board. (Asked in this issue).

>>> board = [['']*3 for _ in range(3)]
>>> board[0][0] = "X"
>>> board
[['X', '', ''], ['', '', ''], ['', '', '']]

▶ The sticky output function

<!-- Example ID: 4dc42f77-94cb-4eb5-a120-8203d3ed7604 --->

1.

funcs = []
results = []
for x in range(7):
    def some_func():
        return x
    funcs.append(some_func)
    results.append(some_func())  # note the function call here

funcs_results = [func() for func in funcs]

Output:

>>> results
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> funcs_results
[6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6]

Even when the values of x were different in every iteration prior to appending some_func to funcs, all the functions return 6.

2.

>>> powers_of_x = [lambda x: x**i for i in range(10)]
>>> [f(2) for f in powers_of_x]
[512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512]

💡 Explanation


▶ The chicken-egg problem *

<!-- Example ID: 60730dc2-0d79-4416-8568-2a63323b3ce8 --->

1.

>>> isinstance(3, int)
True
>>> isinstance(type, object)
True
>>> isinstance(object, type)
True

So which is the "ultimate" base class? There's more to the confusion by the way,

2.

>>> class A: pass
>>> isinstance(A, A)
False
>>> isinstance(type, type)
True
>>> isinstance(object, object)
True

3.

>>> issubclass(int, object)
True
>>> issubclass(type, object)
True
>>> issubclass(object, type)
False

💡 Explanation


▶ Subclass relationships

<!-- Example ID: 9f6d8cf0-e1b5-42d0-84a0-4cfab25a0bc0 --->

Output:

>>> from collections import Hashable
>>> issubclass(list, object)
True
>>> issubclass(object, Hashable)
True
>>> issubclass(list, Hashable)
False

The Subclass relationships were expected to be transitive, right? (i.e., if A is a subclass of B, and B is a subclass of C, the A should a subclass of C)

💡 Explanation:


▶ Methods equality and identity

<!-- Example ID: 94802911-48fe-4242-defa-728ae893fa32 --->
class SomeClass:
    def method(self):
        pass

    @classmethod
    def classm(cls):
        pass

    @staticmethod
    def staticm():
        pass

Output:

>>> print(SomeClass.method is SomeClass.method)
True
>>> print(SomeClass.classm is SomeClass.classm)
False
>>> print(SomeClass.classm == SomeClass.classm)
True
>>> print(SomeClass.staticm is SomeClass.staticm)
True

Accessing classm twice, we get an equal object, but not the same one? Let's see what happens with instances of SomeClass:

o1 = SomeClass()
o2 = SomeClass()

Output:

>>> print(o1.method == o2.method)
False
>>> print(o1.method == o1.method)
True
>>> print(o1.method is o1.method)
False
>>> print(o1.classm is o1.classm)
False
>>> print(o1.classm == o1.classm == o2.classm == SomeClass.classm)
True
>>> print(o1.staticm is o1.staticm is o2.staticm is SomeClass.staticm)
True

Accessing classm or method twice, creates equal but not same objects for the same instance of SomeClass.

💡 Explanation

>>> o1.method
<bound method SomeClass.method of <__main__.SomeClass object at ...>>
>>> SomeClass.method
<function SomeClass.method at ...>
>>> o1.classm
<bound method SomeClass.classm of <class '__main__.SomeClass'>>
>>> SomeClass.classm
<bound method SomeClass.classm of <class '__main__.SomeClass'>>
>>> o1.staticm
<function SomeClass.staticm at ...>
>>> SomeClass.staticm
<function SomeClass.staticm at ...>

▶ All-true-ation *

<!-- Example ID: dfe6d845-e452-48fe-a2da-0ed3869a8042 -->
>>> all([True, True, True])
True
>>> all([True, True, False])
False

>>> all([])
True
>>> all([[]])
False
>>> all([[[]]])
True

Why's this True-False alteration?

💡 Explanation:


▶ The surprising comma

<!-- Example ID: 31a819c8-ed73-4dcc-84eb-91bedbb51e58 --->

Output (< 3.6):

>>> def f(x, y,):
...     print(x, y)
...
>>> def g(x=4, y=5,):
...     print(x, y)
...
>>> def h(x, **kwargs,):
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    def h(x, **kwargs,):
                     ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

>>> def h(*args,):
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    def h(*args,):
                ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

💡 Explanation:


▶ Strings and the backslashes

<!-- Example ID: 6ae622c3-6d99-4041-9b33-507bd1a4407b --->

Output:

>>> print("\"")
"

>>> print(r"\"")
\"

>>> print(r"\")
File "<stdin>", line 1
    print(r"\")
              ^
SyntaxError: EOL while scanning string literal

>>> r'\'' == "\\'"
True

💡 Explanation


▶ not knot!

<!-- Example ID: 7034deb1-7443-417d-94ee-29a800524de8 --->
x = True
y = False

Output:

>>> not x == y
True
>>> x == not y
  File "<input>", line 1
    x == not y
           ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

💡 Explanation:


▶ Half triple-quoted strings

<!-- Example ID: c55da3e2-1034-43b9-abeb-a7a970a2ad9e --->

Output:

>>> print('wtfpython''')
wtfpython
>>> print("wtfpython""")
wtfpython
>>> # The following statements raise `SyntaxError`
>>> # print('''wtfpython')
>>> # print("""wtfpython")
  File "<input>", line 3
    print("""wtfpython")
                        ^
SyntaxError: EOF while scanning triple-quoted string literal

💡 Explanation:


▶ What's wrong with booleans?

<!-- Example ID: 0bba5fa7-9e6d-4cd2-8b94-952d061af5dd --->

1.

# A simple example to count the number of booleans and
# integers in an iterable of mixed data types.
mixed_list = [False, 1.0, "some_string", 3, True, [], False]
integers_found_so_far = 0
booleans_found_so_far = 0

for item in mixed_list:
    if isinstance(item, int):
        integers_found_so_far += 1
    elif isinstance(item, bool):
        booleans_found_so_far += 1

Output:

>>> integers_found_so_far
4
>>> booleans_found_so_far
0

2.

>>> some_bool = True
>>> "wtf" * some_bool
'wtf'
>>> some_bool = False
>>> "wtf" * some_bool
''

3.

def tell_truth():
    True = False
    if True == False:
        print("I have lost faith in truth!")

Output (< 3.x):

>>> tell_truth()
I have lost faith in truth!

💡 Explanation:


▶ Class attributes and instance attributes

<!-- Example ID: 6f332208-33bd-482d-8106-42863b739ed9 --->

1.

class A:
    x = 1

class B(A):
    pass

class C(A):
    pass

Output:

>>> A.x, B.x, C.x
(1, 1, 1)
>>> B.x = 2
>>> A.x, B.x, C.x
(1, 2, 1)
>>> A.x = 3
>>> A.x, B.x, C.x # C.x changed, but B.x didn't
(3, 2, 3)
>>> a = A()
>>> a.x, A.x
(3, 3)
>>> a.x += 1
>>> a.x, A.x
(4, 3)

2.

class SomeClass:
    some_var = 15
    some_list = [5]
    another_list = [5]
    def __init__(self, x):
        self.some_var = x + 1
        self.some_list = self.some_list + [x]
        self.another_list += [x]

Output:

>>> some_obj = SomeClass(420)
>>> some_obj.some_list
[5, 420]
>>> some_obj.another_list
[5, 420]
>>> another_obj = SomeClass(111)
>>> another_obj.some_list
[5, 111]
>>> another_obj.another_list
[5, 420, 111]
>>> another_obj.another_list is SomeClass.another_list
True
>>> another_obj.another_list is some_obj.another_list
True

💡 Explanation:


▶ yielding None

<!-- Example ID: 5a40c241-2c30-40d0-8ba9-cf7e097b3b53 --->
some_iterable = ('a', 'b')

def some_func(val):
    return "something"

Output (<= 3.7.x):

>>> [x for x in some_iterable]
['a', 'b']
>>> [(yield x) for x in some_iterable]
<generator object <listcomp> at 0x7f70b0a4ad58>
>>> list([(yield x) for x in some_iterable])
['a', 'b']
>>> list((yield x) for x in some_iterable)
['a', None, 'b', None]
>>> list(some_func((yield x)) for x in some_iterable)
['a', 'something', 'b', 'something']

💡 Explanation:


▶ Yielding from... return! *

<!-- Example ID: 5626d8ef-8802-49c2-adbc-7cda5c550816 --->

1.

def some_func(x):
    if x == 3:
        return ["wtf"]
    else:
        yield from range(x)

Output (> 3.3):

>>> list(some_func(3))
[]

Where did the "wtf" go? Is it due to some special effect of yield from? Let's validate that,

2.

def some_func(x):
    if x == 3:
        return ["wtf"]
    else:
        for i in range(x):
          yield i

Output:

>>> list(some_func(3))
[]

The same result, this didn't work either.

💡 Explanation:

"... return expr in a generator causes StopIteration(expr) to be raised upon exit from the generator."


▶ Nan-reflexivity *

<!-- Example ID: 59bee91a-36e0-47a4-8c7d-aa89bf1d3976 --->

1.

a = float('inf')
b = float('nan')
c = float('-iNf')  # These strings are case-insensitive
d = float('nan')

Output:

>>> a
inf
>>> b
nan
>>> c
-inf
>>> float('some_other_string')
ValueError: could not convert string to float: some_other_string
>>> a == -c # inf==inf
True
>>> None == None # None == None
True
>>> b == d # but nan!=nan
False
>>> 50 / a
0.0
>>> a / a
nan
>>> 23 + b
nan

2.

>>> x = float('nan')
>>> y = x / x
>>> y is y # identity holds
True
>>> y == y # equality fails of y
False
>>> [y] == [y] # but the equality succeeds for the list containing y
True

💡 Explanation:


▶ Mutating the immutable!

<!-- Example ID: 15a9e782-1695-43ea-817a-a9208f6bb33d --->

This might seem trivial if you know how references work in Python.

some_tuple = ("A", "tuple", "with", "values")
another_tuple = ([1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6])

Output:

>>> some_tuple[2] = "change this"
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
>>> another_tuple[2].append(1000) #This throws no error
>>> another_tuple
([1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6, 1000])
>>> another_tuple[2] += [99, 999]
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
>>> another_tuple
([1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6, 1000, 99, 999])

But I thought tuples were immutable...

💡 Explanation:


▶ The disappearing variable from outer scope

<!-- Example ID: 7f1e71b6-cb3e-44fb-aa47-87ef1b7decc8 --->
e = 7
try:
    raise Exception()
except Exception as e:
    pass

Output (Python 2.x):

>>> print(e)
# prints nothing

Output (Python 3.x):

>>> print(e)
NameError: name 'e' is not defined

💡 Explanation:


▶ The mysterious key type conversion

<!-- Example ID: 00f42dd0-b9ef-408d-9e39-1bc209ce3f36 --->
class SomeClass(str):
    pass

some_dict = {'s': 42}

Output:

>>> type(list(some_dict.keys())[0])
str
>>> s = SomeClass('s')
>>> some_dict[s] = 40
>>> some_dict # expected: Two different keys-value pairs
{'s': 40}
>>> type(list(some_dict.keys())[0])
str

💡 Explanation:


▶ Let's see if you can guess this?

<!-- Example ID: 81aa9fbe-bd63-4283-b56d-6fdd14c9105e --->
a, b = a[b] = {}, 5

Output:

>>> a
{5: ({...}, 5)}

💡 Explanation:

An assignment statement evaluates the expression list (remember that this can be a single expression or a comma-separated list, the latter yielding a tuple) and assigns the single resulting object to each of the target lists, from left to right.



Section: Slippery Slopes

▶ Modifying a dictionary while iterating over it

<!-- Example ID: b4e5cdfb-c3a8-4112-bd38-e2356d801c41 --->
x = {0: None}

for i in x:
    del x[i]
    x[i+1] = None
    print(i)

Output (Python 2.7- Python 3.5):

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Yes, it runs for exactly eight times and stops.

💡 Explanation:


▶ Stubborn del operation

<!-- Example ID: 777ed4fd-3a2d-466f-95e7-c4058e61d78e ---> <!-- read-only -->
class SomeClass:
    def __del__(self):
        print("Deleted!")

Output: 1.

>>> x = SomeClass()
>>> y = x
>>> del x # this should print "Deleted!"
>>> del y
Deleted!

Phew, deleted at last. You might have guessed what saved __del__ from being called in our first attempt to delete x. Let's add more twists to the example.

2.

>>> x = SomeClass()
>>> y = x
>>> del x
>>> y # check if y exists
<__main__.SomeClass instance at 0x7f98a1a67fc8>
>>> del y # Like previously, this should print "Deleted!"
>>> globals() # oh, it didn't. Let's check all our global variables and confirm
Deleted!
{'__builtins__': <module '__builtin__' (built-in)>, 'SomeClass': <class __main__.SomeClass at 0x7f98a1a5f668>, '__package__': None, '__name__': '__main__', '__doc__': None}

Okay, now it's deleted :confused:

💡 Explanation:


▶ The out of scope variable

<!-- Example ID: 75c03015-7be9-4289-9e22-4f5fdda056f7 --->

1.

a = 1
def some_func():
    return a

def another_func():
    a += 1
    return a

2.

def some_closure_func():
    a = 1
    def some_inner_func():
        return a
    return some_inner_func()

def another_closure_func():
    a = 1
    def another_inner_func():
        a += 1
        return a
    return another_inner_func()

Output:

>>> some_func()
1
>>> another_func()
UnboundLocalError: local variable 'a' referenced before assignment

>>> some_closure_func()
1
>>> another_closure_func()
UnboundLocalError: local variable 'a' referenced before assignment

💡 Explanation:


▶ Deleting a list item while iterating

<!-- Example ID: 4cc52d4e-d42b-4e09-b25f-fbf5699b7d4e --->
list_1 = [1, 2, 3, 4]
list_2 = [1, 2, 3, 4]
list_3 = [1, 2, 3, 4]
list_4 = [1, 2, 3, 4]

for idx, item in enumerate(list_1):
    del item

for idx, item in enumerate(list_2):
    list_2.remove(item)

for idx, item in enumerate(list_3[:]):
    list_3.remove(item)

for idx, item in enumerate(list_4):
    list_4.pop(idx)

Output:

>>> list_1
[1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> list_2
[2, 4]
>>> list_3
[]
>>> list_4
[2, 4]

Can you guess why the output is [2, 4]?

💡 Explanation:

Difference between del, remove, and pop:

Why the output is [2, 4]?


▶ Lossy zip of iterators *

<!-- Example ID: c28ed154-e59f-4070-8eb6-8967a4acac6d --->
>>> numbers = list(range(7))
>>> numbers
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> first_three, remaining = numbers[:3], numbers[3:]
>>> first_three, remaining
([0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> numbers_iter = iter(numbers)
>>> list(zip(numbers_iter, first_three)) 
[(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2)]
# so far so good, let's zip the remaining
>>> list(zip(numbers_iter, remaining))
[(4, 3), (5, 4), (6, 5)]

Where did element 3 go from the numbers list?

💡 Explanation:


▶ Loop variables leaking out!

<!-- Example ID: ccec7bf6-7679-4963-907a-1cd8587be9ea --->

1.

for x in range(7):
    if x == 6:
        print(x, ': for x inside loop')
print(x, ': x in global')

Output:

6 : for x inside loop
6 : x in global

But x was never defined outside the scope of for loop...

2.

# This time let's initialize x first
x = -1
for x in range(7):
    if x == 6:
        print(x, ': for x inside loop')
print(x, ': x in global')

Output:

6 : for x inside loop
6 : x in global

3.

Output (Python 2.x):

>>> x = 1
>>> print([x for x in range(5)])
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> print(x)
4

Output (Python 3.x):

>>> x = 1
>>> print([x for x in range(5)])
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> print(x)
1

💡 Explanation:


▶ Beware of default mutable arguments!

<!-- Example ID: 7d42dade-e20d-4a7b-9ed7-16fb58505fe9 --->
def some_func(default_arg=[]):
    default_arg.append("some_string")
    return default_arg

Output:

>>> some_func()
['some_string']
>>> some_func()
['some_string', 'some_string']
>>> some_func([])
['some_string']
>>> some_func()
['some_string', 'some_string', 'some_string']

💡 Explanation:


▶ Catching the Exceptions

<!-- Example ID: b5ca5e6a-47b9-4f69-9375-cda0f8c6755d --->
some_list = [1, 2, 3]
try:
    # This should raise an ``IndexError``
    print(some_list[4])
except IndexError, ValueError:
    print("Caught!")

try:
    # This should raise a ``ValueError``
    some_list.remove(4)
except IndexError, ValueError:
    print("Caught again!")

Output (Python 2.x):

Caught!

ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

Output (Python 3.x):

  File "<input>", line 3
    except IndexError, ValueError:
                     ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

💡 Explanation


▶ Same operands, different story!

<!-- Example ID: ca052cdf-dd2d-4105-b936-65c28adc18a0 --->

1.

a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
b = a
a = a + [5, 6, 7, 8]

Output:

>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
>>> b
[1, 2, 3, 4]

2.

a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
b = a
a += [5, 6, 7, 8]

Output:

>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
>>> b
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]

💡 Explanation:


▶ Name resolution ignoring class scope

<!-- Example ID: 03f73d96-151c-4929-b0a8-f74430788324 --->

1.

x = 5
class SomeClass:
    x = 17
    y = (x for i in range(10))

Output:

>>> list(SomeClass.y)[0]
5

2.

x = 5
class SomeClass:
    x = 17
    y = [x for i in range(10)]

Output (Python 2.x):

>>> SomeClass.y[0]
17

Output (Python 3.x):

>>> SomeClass.y[0]
5

💡 Explanation


▶ Needles in a Haystack *

<!-- Example ID: 52a199b1-989a-4b28-8910-dff562cebba9 --->

I haven't met even a single experience Pythonist till date who has not come across one or more of the following scenarios,

1.

x, y = (0, 1) if True else None, None

Output:

>>> x, y  # expected (0, 1)
((0, 1), None)

2.

t = ('one', 'two')
for i in t:
    print(i)

t = ('one')
for i in t:
    print(i)

t = ()
print(t)

Output:

one
two
o
n
e
tuple()

3.

ten_words_list = [
    "some",
    "very",
    "big",
    "list",
    "that"
    "consists",
    "of",
    "exactly",
    "ten",
    "words"
]

Output

>>> len(ten_words_list)
9

4. Not asserting strongly enough

a = "python"
b = "javascript"

Output:

# An assert statement with an assertion failure message.
>>> assert(a == b, "Both languages are different")
# No AssertionError is raised

5.

some_list = [1, 2, 3]
some_dict = {
  "key_1": 1,
  "key_2": 2,
  "key_3": 3
}

some_list = some_list.append(4) 
some_dict = some_dict.update({"key_4": 4})

Output:

>>> print(some_list)
None
>>> print(some_dict)
None

6.

def some_recursive_func(a):
    if a[0] == 0:
        return
    a[0] -= 1
    some_recursive_func(a)
    return a

def similar_recursive_func(a):
    if a == 0:
        return a
    a -= 1
    similar_recursive_func(a)
    return a

Output:

>>> some_recursive_func([5, 0])
[0, 0]
>>> similar_recursive_func(5)
4

💡 Explanation:


▶ Splitsies *

<!-- Example ID: ec3168ba-a81a-4482-afb0-691f1cc8d65a --->
>>> 'a'.split()
['a']

# is same as
>>> 'a'.split(' ')
['a']

# but
>>> len(''.split())
0

# isn't the same as
>>> len(''.split(' '))
1

💡 Explanation:


▶ Wild imports *

<!-- Example ID: 83deb561-bd55-4461-bb5e-77dd7f411e1c ---> <!-- read-only -->
# File: module.py

def some_weird_name_func_():
    print("works!")

def _another_weird_name_func():
    print("works!")

Output

>>> from module import *
>>> some_weird_name_func_()
"works!"
>>> _another_weird_name_func()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name '_another_weird_name_func' is not defined

💡 Explanation:


▶ All sorted? *

<!-- Example ID: e5ff1eaf-8823-4738-b4ce-b73f7c9d5511 -->
>>> x = 7, 8, 9
>>> sorted(x) == x
False
>>> sorted(x) == sorted(x)
True

>>> y = reversed(x)
>>> sorted(y) == sorted(y)
False

💡 Explanation:


▶ Midnight time doesn't exist?

<!-- Example ID: 1bce8294-5619-4d70-8ce3-fe0bade690d1 --->
from datetime import datetime

midnight = datetime(2018, 1, 1, 0, 0)
midnight_time = midnight.time()

noon = datetime(2018, 1, 1, 12, 0)
noon_time = noon.time()

if midnight_time:
    print("Time at midnight is", midnight_time)

if noon_time:
    print("Time at noon is", noon_time)

Output (< 3.5):

('Time at noon is', datetime.time(12, 0))

The midnight time is not printed.

💡 Explanation:

Before Python 3.5, the boolean value for datetime.time object was considered to be False if it represented midnight in UTC. It is error-prone when using the if obj: syntax to check if the obj is null or some equivalent of "empty."



Section: The Hidden treasures!

This section contains a few lesser-known and interesting things about Python that most beginners like me are unaware of (well, not anymore).

▶ Okay Python, Can you make me fly?

<!-- Example ID: a92f3645-1899-4d50-9721-0031be4aec3f --->

Well, here you go

import antigravity

Output: Sshh... It's a super-secret.

💡 Explanation:


goto, but why?

<!-- Example ID: 2aff961e-7fa5-4986-a18a-9e5894bd89fe --->
from goto import goto, label
for i in range(9):
    for j in range(9):
        for k in range(9):
            print("I am trapped, please rescue!")
            if k == 2:
                goto .breakout # breaking out from a deeply nested loop
label .breakout
print("Freedom!")

Output (Python 2.3):

I am trapped, please rescue!
I am trapped, please rescue!
Freedom!

💡 Explanation:


▶ Brace yourself!

<!-- Example ID: 5c0c75f2-ddd9-4da3-ba49-c4be7ec39acf --->

If you are one of the people who doesn't like using whitespace in Python to denote scopes, you can use the C-style {} by importing,

from __future__ import braces

Output:

  File "some_file.py", line 1
    from __future__ import braces
SyntaxError: not a chance

Braces? No way! If you think that's disappointing, use Java. Okay, another surprising thing, can you find where's the SyntaxError raised in __future__ module code?

💡 Explanation:


▶ Let's meet Friendly Language Uncle For Life

<!-- Example ID: 6427fae6-e959-462d-85da-ce4c94ce41be --->

Output (Python 3.x)

>>> from __future__ import barry_as_FLUFL
>>> "Ruby" != "Python" # there's no doubt about it
  File "some_file.py", line 1
    "Ruby" != "Python"
              ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

>>> "Ruby" <> "Python"
True

There we go.

💡 Explanation:


▶ Even Python understands that love is complicated

<!-- Example ID: b93cad9e-d341-45d1-999c-fcdce65bed25 --->
import this

Wait, what's this? this is love :heart:

Output:

The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

Beautiful is better than ugly.
Explicit is better than implicit.
Simple is better than complex.
Complex is better than complicated.
Flat is better than nested.
Sparse is better than dense.
Readability counts.
Special cases aren't special enough to break the rules.
Although practicality beats purity.
Errors should never pass silently.
Unless explicitly silenced.
In the face of ambiguity, refuse the temptation to guess.
There should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.
Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
Now is better than never.
Although never is often better than *right* now.
If the implementation is hard to explain, it's a bad idea.
If the implementation is easy to explain, it may be a good idea.
Namespaces are one honking great idea -- let's do more of those!

It's the Zen of Python!

>>> love = this
>>> this is love
True
>>> love is True
False
>>> love is False
False
>>> love is not True or False
True
>>> love is not True or False; love is love  # Love is complicated
True

💡 Explanation:


▶ Yes, it exists!

<!-- Example ID: 4286db3d-1ea7-47c9-8fb6-a9a04cac6e49 --->

The else clause for loops. One typical example might be:

  def does_exists_num(l, to_find):
      for num in l:
          if num == to_find:
              print("Exists!")
              break
      else:
          print("Does not exist")

Output:

>>> some_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> does_exists_num(some_list, 4)
Exists!
>>> does_exists_num(some_list, -1)
Does not exist

The else clause in exception handling. An example,

try:
    pass
except:
    print("Exception occurred!!!")
else:
    print("Try block executed successfully...")

Output:

Try block executed successfully...

💡 Explanation:


▶ Ellipsis *

<!-- Example ID: 969b7100-ab3d-4a7d-ad7d-a6be16181b2b --->
def some_func():
    Ellipsis

Output

>>> some_func()
# No output, No Error

>>> SomeRandomString
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'SomeRandomString' is not defined

>>> Ellipsis
Ellipsis

💡 Explanation


▶ Inpinity

<!-- Example ID: ff473ea8-a3b1-4876-a6f0-4378aff790c1 --->

The spelling is intended. Please, don't submit a patch for this.

Output (Python 3.x):

>>> infinity = float('infinity')
>>> hash(infinity)
314159
>>> hash(float('-inf'))
-314159

💡 Explanation:


▶ Let's mangle

<!-- Example ID: 37146d2d-9e67-43a9-8729-3c17934b910c --->

1.

class Yo(object):
    def __init__(self):
        self.__honey = True
        self.bro = True

Output:

>>> Yo().bro
True
>>> Yo().__honey
AttributeError: 'Yo' object has no attribute '__honey'
>>> Yo()._Yo__honey
True

2.

class Yo(object):
    def __init__(self):
        # Let's try something symmetrical this time
        self.__honey__ = True
        self.bro = True

Output:

>>> Yo().bro
True

>>> Yo()._Yo__honey__
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: 'Yo' object has no attribute '_Yo__honey__'

Why did Yo()._Yo__honey work?

3.

_A__variable = "Some value"

class A(object):
    def some_func(self):
        return __variable # not initialized anywhere yet

Output:

>>> A().__variable
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: 'A' object has no attribute '__variable'

>>> A().some_func()
'Some value'

💡 Explanation:



Section: Appearances are deceptive!

▶ Skipping lines?

<!-- Example ID: d50bbde1-fb9d-4735-9633-3444b9d2f417 --->

Output:

>>> value = 11
>>> valuе = 32
>>> value
11

Wut?

Note: The easiest way to reproduce this is to simply copy the statements from the above snippet and paste them into your file/shell.

💡 Explanation

Some non-Western characters look identical to letters in the English alphabet but are considered distinct by the interpreter.

>>> ord('е') # cyrillic 'e' (Ye)
1077
>>> ord('e') # latin 'e', as used in English and typed using standard keyboard
101
>>> 'е' == 'e'
False

>>> value = 42 # latin e
>>> valuе = 23 # cyrillic 'e', Python 2.x interpreter would raise a `SyntaxError` here
>>> value
42

The built-in ord() function returns a character's Unicode code point, and different code positions of Cyrillic 'e' and Latin 'e' justify the behavior of the above example.


▶ Teleportation

<!-- Example ID: edafe923-0c20-4315-b6e1-0c31abfc38f5 --->
# `pip install numpy` first.
import numpy as np

def energy_send(x):
    # Initializing a numpy array
    np.array([float(x)])

def energy_receive():
    # Return an empty numpy array
    return np.empty((), dtype=np.float).tolist()

Output:

>>> energy_send(123.456)
>>> energy_receive()
123.456

Where's the Nobel Prize?

💡 Explanation:


▶ Well, something is fishy...

<!-- Example ID: cb6a37c5-74f7-44ca-b58c-3b902419b362 --->
def square(x):
    """
    A simple function to calculate the square of a number by addition.
    """
    sum_so_far = 0
    for counter in range(x):
        sum_so_far = sum_so_far + x
  return sum_so_far

Output (Python 2.x):

>>> square(10)
10

Shouldn't that be 100?

Note: If you're not able to reproduce this, try running the file mixed_tabs_and_spaces.py via the shell.

💡 Explanation



Section: Miscellaneous

+= is faster

<!-- Example ID: bfd19c60-a807-4a26-9598-4912b86ddb36 --->
# using "+", three strings:
>>> timeit.timeit("s1 = s1 + s2 + s3", setup="s1 = ' ' * 100000; s2 = ' ' * 100000; s3 = ' ' * 100000", number=100)
0.25748300552368164
# using "+=", three strings:
>>> timeit.timeit("s1 += s2 + s3", setup="s1 = ' ' * 100000; s2 = ' ' * 100000; s3 = ' ' * 100000", number=100)
0.012188911437988281

💡 Explanation:


▶ Let's make a giant string!

<!-- Example ID: c7a07424-63fe-4504-9842-8f3d334f28fc --->
def add_string_with_plus(iters):
    s = ""
    for i in range(iters):
        s += "xyz"
    assert len(s) == 3*iters

def add_bytes_with_plus(iters):
    s = b""
    for i in range(iters):
        s += b"xyz"
    assert len(s) == 3*iters

def add_string_with_format(iters):
    fs = "{}"*iters
    s = fs.format(*(["xyz"]*iters))
    assert len(s) == 3*iters

def add_string_with_join(iters):
    l = []
    for i in range(iters):
        l.append("xyz")
    s = "".join(l)
    assert len(s) == 3*iters

def convert_list_to_string(l, iters):
    s = "".join(l)
    assert len(s) == 3*iters

Output:

# Executed in ipython shell using %timeit for better readability of results.
# You can also use the timeit module in normal python shell/scriptm=, example usage below
# timeit.timeit('add_string_with_plus(10000)', number=1000, globals=globals())

>>> NUM_ITERS = 1000
>>> %timeit -n1000 add_string_with_plus(NUM_ITERS)
124 µs ± 4.73 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)
>>> %timeit -n1000 add_bytes_with_plus(NUM_ITERS)
211 µs ± 10.5 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)
>>> %timeit -n1000 add_string_with_format(NUM_ITERS)
61 µs ± 2.18 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)
>>> %timeit -n1000 add_string_with_join(NUM_ITERS)
117 µs ± 3.21 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)
>>> l = ["xyz"]*NUM_ITERS
>>> %timeit -n1000 convert_list_to_string(l, NUM_ITERS)
10.1 µs ± 1.06 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)

Let's increase the number of iterations by a factor of 10.

>>> NUM_ITERS = 10000
>>> %timeit -n1000 add_string_with_plus(NUM_ITERS) # Linear increase in execution time
1.26 ms ± 76.8 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)
>>> %timeit -n1000 add_bytes_with_plus(NUM_ITERS) # Quadratic increase
6.82 ms ± 134 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)
>>> %timeit -n1000 add_string_with_format(NUM_ITERS) # Linear increase
645 µs ± 24.5 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)
>>> %timeit -n1000 add_string_with_join(NUM_ITERS) # Linear increase
1.17 ms ± 7.25 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)
>>> l = ["xyz"]*NUM_ITERS
>>> %timeit -n1000 convert_list_to_string(l, NUM_ITERS) # Linear increase
86.3 µs ± 2 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)

💡 Explanation


▶ Slowing down dict lookups *

<!-- Example ID: c9c26ce6-df0c-47f7-af0b-966b9386d4c3 --->
some_dict = {str(i): 1 for i in range(1_000_000)}
another_dict = {str(i): 1 for i in range(1_000_000)}

Output:

>>> %timeit some_dict['5']
28.6 ns ± 0.115 ns per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10000000 loops each)
>>> some_dict[1] = 1
>>> %timeit some_dict['5']
37.2 ns ± 0.265 ns per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10000000 loops each)

>>> %timeit another_dict['5']
28.5 ns ± 0.142 ns per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10000000 loops each)
>>> another_dict[1]  # Trying to access a key that doesn't exist
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
KeyError: 1
>>> %timeit another_dict['5']
38.5 ns ± 0.0913 ns per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10000000 loops each)

Why are same lookups becoming slower?

💡 Explanation:

▶ Bloating instance dicts *

<!-- Example ID: fe706ab4-1615-c0ba-a078-76c98cbe3f48 --->
import sys

class SomeClass:
    def __init__(self):
        self.some_attr1 = 1
        self.some_attr2 = 2
        self.some_attr3 = 3
        self.some_attr4 = 4


def dict_size(o):
    return sys.getsizeof(o.__dict__)

Output: (Python 3.8, other Python 3 versions may vary a little)

>>> o1 = SomeClass()
>>> o2 = SomeClass()
>>> dict_size(o1)
104
>>> dict_size(o2)
104
>>> del o1.some_attr1
>>> o3 = SomeClass()
>>> dict_size(o3)
232
>>> dict_size(o1)
232

Let's try again... In a new interpreter:

>>> o1 = SomeClass()
>>> o2 = SomeClass()
>>> dict_size(o1)
104  # as expected
>>> o1.some_attr5 = 5
>>> o1.some_attr6 = 6
>>> dict_size(o1)
360
>>> dict_size(o2)
272
>>> o3 = SomeClass()
>>> dict_size(o3)
232

What makes those dictionaries become bloated? And why are newly created objects bloated as well?

💡 Explanation:

▶ Minor Ones *

<!-- Example ID: f885cb82-f1e4-4daa-9ff3-972b14cb1324 --->

Contributing

A few ways in which you can contribute to wtfpython,

Please see CONTRIBUTING.md for more details. Feel free to create a new issue to discuss things.

PS: Please don't reach out with backlinking requests, no links will be added unless they're highly relevant to the project.

Acknowledgements

The idea and design for this collection were initially inspired by Denys Dovhan's awesome project wtfjs. The overwhelming support by Pythonistas gave it the shape it is in right now.

Some nice Links!

🎓 License

WTFPL 2.0

© Satwik Kansal

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